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<title>Systematics</title>

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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Systematics</span></span>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Systematic biology" redirects here. For the journal, see <a href="Systematic_Biology" title="Systematic Biology">Systematic Biology</a>. For other uses, see <a href="Systematics_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Systematics (disambiguation)">Systematics (disambiguation)</a>.</div>

<p><b>Systematics</b> is the study of the diversification of living forms, both past and present, and the <a href="Correlation_and_dependence" class="mw-redirect" title="Correlation and dependence">relationships</a> among living things through time. Relationships are visualized as evolutionary trees (synonyms: <a href="Phylogenetic_tree" title="Phylogenetic tree">phylogenetic trees</a>, phylogenies). Phylogenies have two components: branching order (showing group relationships, graphically represented in <a href="Cladograms" class="mw-redirect" title="Cladograms">cladograms</a>) and branch length (showing amount of evolution). Phylogenetic trees of species and higher <a href="Taxa" class="mw-redirect" title="Taxa">taxa</a> are used to study the evolution of traits (e.g., anatomical or molecular characteristics) and the distribution of organisms (<a href="Biogeography" title="Biogeography">biogeography</a>). Systematics, in other words, is used to understand the evolutionary history of life on Earth.

</p><p>The word systematics is derived from the Latin word of Ancient Greek origin <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/systema#Latin" class="extiw external" title="wikt:systema">systema</a>,</i> which means systematic arrangement of organisms. <a href="Carl_Linnaeus" title="Carl Linnaeus">Carl Linnaeus</a> used '<a href="Systema_Naturae" title="Systema Naturae">Systema Naturae</a>' as the title of his book.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Branches_and_applications">Branches and applications</h2></div>

<p>In the study of biological systematics, researchers use the different branches to further understand the relationships between differing organisms. These branches are used to determine the applications and uses for modern day systematics.

</p><p>Biological systematics classifies species by using three specific branches. <i>Numerical systematics</i>, or <i>biometry</i>, uses biological statistics to identify and classify animals. <i>Biochemical systematics</i> classifies and identifies animals based on the analysis of the material that makes up the living part of a cell—such as the <a href="Cell_nucleus" title="Cell nucleus">nucleus</a>, <a href="Organelle" title="Organelle">organelles</a>, and <a href="Cytoplasm" title="Cytoplasm">cytoplasm</a>. <i>Experimental systematics</i> identifies and classifies animals based on the evolutionary units that comprise a species, as well as their importance in evolution itself. Factors such as mutations, genetic divergence, and hybridization all are considered evolutionary units.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>With the specific branches, researchers are able to determine the applications and uses for modern-day systematics. These applications include:

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<ul><li>Studying the diversity of organisms and the differentiation between extinct and living creatures. Biologists study the well-understood relationships by making many different diagrams and "trees" (cladograms, phylogenetic trees, phylogenies, etc.).</li>

<li>Including the scientific names of organisms, species descriptions and overviews, taxonomic orders, and classifications of evolutionary and organism histories.</li>

<li>Explaining the biodiversity of the planet and its organisms. The systematic study is that of conservation.</li>

<li>Manipulating and controlling the natural world. This includes the practice of 'biological control', the intentional introduction of natural predators and disease.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition_and_relation_with_taxonomy">Definition and relation with taxonomy</h2></div>

<p><a href="John_Lindley" title="John Lindley">John Lindley</a> provided an early definition of systematics in 1830, although he wrote of "systematic botany" rather than using the term "systematics".<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>In 1970 Michener <i>et al.</i> defined "systematic biology" and "<a href="Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">taxonomy</a>" (terms that are often confused and used interchangeably) in relationship to one another as follows:<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<p>Systematic biology (hereafter called simply systematics) is the field that (a) provides scientific names for organisms, (b) describes them, (c) preserves collections of them, (d) provides classifications for the organisms, keys for their identification, and data on their distributions, (e) investigates their evolutionary histories, and (f) considers their environmental adaptations. This is a field with a long history that in recent years has experienced a notable renaissance, principally with respect to theoretical content. Part of the theoretical material has to do with evolutionary areas (topics e and f above), the rest relates especially to the problem of classification. Taxonomy is that part of Systematics concerned with topics (a) to (d) above.

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<p>The term "taxonomy" was coined by <a href="Augustin_Pyramus_de_Candolle" title="Augustin Pyramus de Candolle">Augustin Pyramus de Candolle</a><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while the term "systematic" was coined by <a href="Carl_Linnaeus" title="Carl Linnaeus">Carl Linnaeus</a> the father of taxonomy.

</p><p>Taxonomy, systematic biology, systematics, biosystematics, scientific classification, biological classification, phylogenetics: At various times in history, all these words have had overlapping, related meanings. However, in modern usage, they can all be considered synonyms of each other.

</p><p>For example, Webster's 9th New Collegiate Dictionary of 1987 treats "classification", "taxonomy", and "systematics" as synonyms. According to this work, the terms originated in 1790, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1828</span>, and in 1888 respectively. Some claim systematics alone deals specifically with relationships through time, and that it can be synonymous with <a href="Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">phylogenetics</a>, broadly dealing with the inferred hierarchy of organisms. This means it would be a subset of taxonomy as it is sometimes regarded, but the inverse is claimed by others.

</p><p>Europeans tend to use the terms "systematics" and "biosystematics" for the study of biodiversity as a whole, whereas North Americans tend to use "taxonomy" more frequently.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, taxonomy, and in particular <a href="Alpha_taxonomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Alpha taxonomy">alpha taxonomy</a>, is more specifically the identification, description, and naming (i.e. nomenclature) of organisms,<sup id="cite_ref-Fortey_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fortey-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while "classification" focuses on placing organisms within hierarchical groups that show their relationships to other organisms. All of these biological disciplines can deal with both <a href="Extinct" class="mw-redirect" title="Extinct">extinct</a> and <a href="Extant_taxon" class="mw-redirect" title="Extant taxon">extant</a> organisms.

</p><p>Systematics uses taxonomy as a primary tool in understanding, as nothing about an organism's relationships with other living things can be understood without it first being properly studied and described in sufficient detail to identify and classify it correctly. Scientific classifications are aids in recording and reporting information to other scientists and to laymen. The <b>systematist</b>, a scientist who specializes in systematics, must, therefore, be able to use existing classification systems, or at least know them well enough to skilfully justify not using them.

</p><p><a href="Phenetics" title="Phenetics">Phenetics</a> was an attempt to determine the relationships of organisms through a measure of overall similarity, making no distinction between <a href="Plesiomorph" class="mw-redirect" title="Plesiomorph">plesiomorphies</a> (shared ancestral traits) and <a href="Apomorph" class="mw-redirect" title="Apomorph">apomorphies</a> (derived traits). From the late-20th century onwards, it was superseded by <a href="Cladistics" title="Cladistics">cladistics</a>, which rejects plesiomorphies in attempting to resolve the <a href="Phylogeny" class="mw-redirect" title="Phylogeny">phylogeny</a> of Earth's various organisms through time. Today's systematists generally make extensive use of <a href="Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">molecular biology</a> and of <a href="Computer_programs" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer programs">computer programs</a> to study organisms.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Taxonomic_characters">Taxonomic characters</h2></div>

<p>Taxonomic characters are the taxonomic attributes that can be used to provide the evidence from which relationships (the <a href="Phylogeny" class="mw-redirect" title="Phylogeny">phylogeny</a>) between taxa are inferred.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kinds of taxonomic characters include:<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<ul><li>Morphological characters

<ul><li>General external morphology</li>

<li>Special structures (e.g. genitalia)</li>

<li>Internal morphology (anatomy)</li>

<li>Embryology</li>

<li>Karyology and other cytological factors</li></ul></li>

<li>Physiological characters

<ul><li>Metabolic factors</li>

<li>Body secretions</li>

<li>Genic sterility factors</li></ul></li>

<li>Molecular characters

<ul><li>Immunological distance</li>

<li>Electrophoretic differences</li>

<li>Amino acid sequences of proteins</li>

<li>DNA hybridization</li>

<li>DNA and RNA sequences</li>

<li>Restriction endonuclease analyses</li>

<li>Other molecular differences</li></ul></li></ul>

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<ul><li>Behavioral characters

<ul><li>Courtship and other ethological isolating mechanisms</li>

<li>Other behavior patterns</li></ul></li>

<li>Ecological characters

<ul><li>Habit and habitats</li>

<li>Seasonal variations</li>

<li>Parasites and hosts</li></ul></li>

<li>Geographic characters

<ul><li>General biogeographic distribution patterns</li>

<li>Sympatric-allopatric relationship of populations</li></ul></li></ul>

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<ul><li><a href="Evolutionary_systematics" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary systematics">Evolutionary systematics</a> – a school of systematics</li>

<li><a href="Global_biodiversity" title="Global biodiversity">Global biodiversity</a></li>

<li><a href="16S_ribosomal_RNA" title="16S ribosomal RNA">16S ribosomal RNA</a> – an intensively studied nucleic acid that has been useful in phylogenetics</li>

<li><a href="Phylogenetic_comparative_methods" title="Phylogenetic comparative methods">Phylogenetic comparative methods</a> – use of evolutionary trees in other studies, such as <a href="Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a>, comparative biology. adaptation, or evolutionary mechanisms</li>

<li><a href="Lichen_systematics" title="Lichen systematics">Lichen systematics</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3></div>

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</style><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biologydiscussion.com/animals-2/systematics-meaning-branches-and-its-application/32374">"Systematics: Meaning, Branches and Its Application"</a>. <i>Biology Discussion</i>. 2016-05-27<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-04-12</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wilkins, J. S. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://evolvingthoughts.net/2011/02/what-is-systematics-and-what-is-taxonomy/">What is systematics and what is taxonomy?</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160827124330/http://evolvingthoughts.net/2011/02/what-is-systematics-and-what-is-taxonomy/">Archived</a> 2016-08-27 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i>. Available on <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://evolvingthoughts.net">http://evolvingthoughts.net</a></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Michener, Charles D., John O. Corliss, Richard S. Cowan, Peter H. Raven, Curtis W. Sabrosky, Donald S. Squires, and G. W. Wharton (1970). <i>Systematics In Support of Biological Research</i>. Division of Biology and Agriculture, National Research Council. Washington, D.C. 25 pp.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFSingh2004" class="citation book cs1">Singh, Gurcharan (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=In_Lv8iMt24C&pg=PA20"><i>Plant systematics: An integrated approach</i></a>. Science Publishers. p. 20. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9781578083510</bdi> – via Google Books.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brusca, R. C., & Brusca, G. J. (2003). Invertebrates (2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass. : Sinauer Associates, p. 27</span>

</li>

<cite id="CITEREFFortey2008" class="citation cs2"><a href="Richard_Fortey" title="Richard Fortey">Fortey, Richard</a> (2008), <i>Dry Store Room No. 1: The Secret Life of the Natural History Museum</i>, London: Harper Perennial, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-00-720989-7</bdi></cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mayr, Ernst and Peter D. Ashlock (1991). Principles of Systematic Zoology, (2nd edn.) New York: McGraw-Hill, p. 159.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mayr, Ernst and Peter D. Ashlock (1991), p. 162.</span>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h3></div>

<ul><li>Brower, Andrew V. Z. and Randall T. Schuh. 2021. <i>Biological Systematics: Principles and Applications, 3rd edn.</i> <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-5017-5277-3</bdi></li>

<li>Simpson, Michael G. 2005. <i>Plant Systematics</i>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-12-644460-5</bdi></li>

<li>Wiley, Edward O. and Bruce S. Lieberman. 2011. "Phylogenetics: Theory and Practice of Phylogenetic Systematics, 2nd edn." <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-470-90596-8</bdi></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sasb.org.au">Society of Australian Systematic Biologists</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.systbio.org/">Society of Systematic Biologists</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cladistics.org/">The Willi Hennig Society</a></li></ul>

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</style><div id="Evolutionary_biology753" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li><a href="Introduction_to_evolution" title="Introduction to evolution">Introduction</a></li>

<li><a href="Outline_of_evolution" title="Outline of evolution">Outline</a></li>

<li><a href="Timeline_of_the_evolutionary_history_of_life" title="Timeline of the evolutionary history of life">Timeline of evolution</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_life" title="History of life">History of life</a></li>

<li><a href="Index_of_evolutionary_biology_articles" title="Index of evolutionary biology articles">Index</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Evolution" title="Evolution">Evolution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Abiogenesis</a></li>

<li><a href="Adaptation" title="Adaptation">Adaptation</a></li>

<li><a href="Adaptive_radiation" title="Adaptive radiation">Adaptive radiation</a></li>

<li><a href="Altruism_(biology)" title="Altruism (biology)">Altruism</a>

<ul><li><a href="Cheating_(biology)" title="Cheating (biology)">Cheating</a></li>

<li><a href="Reciprocal_altruism" title="Reciprocal altruism">Reciprocal</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Baldwin_effect" title="Baldwin effect">Baldwin effect</a></li>

<li><a href="Cladistics" title="Cladistics">Cladistics</a></li>

<li><a href="Coevolution" title="Coevolution">Coevolution</a>

<ul><li><a href="Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">Mutualism</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Common_descent" title="Common descent">Common descent</a></li>

<li><a href="Convergent_evolution" title="Convergent evolution">Convergence</a></li>

<li><a href="Divergent_evolution" title="Divergent evolution">Divergence</a></li>

<li><a href="Earliest_known_life_forms" title="Earliest known life forms">Earliest known life forms</a></li>

<li><a href="Evidence_of_common_descent" title="Evidence of common descent">Evidence of evolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_arms_race" title="Evolutionary arms race">Evolutionary arms race</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_pressure" title="Evolutionary pressure">Evolutionary pressure</a></li>

<li><a href="Exaptation" title="Exaptation">Exaptation</a></li>

<li><a href="Extinction" title="Extinction">Extinction</a>

<ul><li><a href="Extinction_event" title="Extinction event">Event</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Homology_(biology)" title="Homology (biology)">Homology</a></li>

<li><a href="Last_universal_common_ancestor" title="Last universal common ancestor">Last universal common ancestor</a></li>

<li><a href="Macroevolution" title="Macroevolution">Macroevolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Microevolution" title="Microevolution">Microevolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_mismatch" title="Evolutionary mismatch">Mismatch</a></li>

<li><a href="Nonadaptive_radiation" title="Nonadaptive radiation">Non-adaptive radiation</a></li>

<li><a href="Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Origin of life</a></li>

<li><a href="Panspermia" title="Panspermia">Panspermia</a></li>

<li><a href="Parallel_evolution" title="Parallel evolution">Parallel evolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Signalling_theory" title="Signalling theory">Signalling theory</a>

<ul><li><a href="Handicap_principle" title="Handicap principle">Handicap principle</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Speciation" title="Speciation">Speciation</a>

<ul><li><a href="Species" title="Species">Species</a></li>

<li><a href="Species_complex" title="Species complex">Species complex</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_taxonomy" title="Evolutionary taxonomy">Taxonomy</a></li>

<li><a href="Unit_of_selection" title="Unit of selection">Unit of selection</a>

<ul><li><a href="Gene-centered_view_of_evolution" title="Gene-centered view of evolution">Gene-centered view of evolution</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population<br>genetics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Selective_breeding" title="Selective breeding">Artificial selection</a></li>

<li><a href="Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionarily_stable_strategy" title="Evolutionarily stable strategy">Evolutionarily stable strategy</a></li>

<li><a href="Fisher's_principle" title="Fisher's principle">Fisher's principle</a></li>

<li><a href="Fitness_(biology)" title="Fitness (biology)">Fitness</a>

<ul><li><a href="Inclusive_fitness" title="Inclusive fitness">Inclusive</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Genetic_drift" title="Genetic drift">Genetic drift</a></li>

<li><a href="Kin_selection" title="Kin selection">Kin selection</a>

<ul><li><a href="Inbreeding_avoidance" title="Inbreeding avoidance">Inbreeding avoidance</a></li>

<li><a href="Kin_recognition" title="Kin recognition">Kin recognition</a></li>

<li><a href="Parental_investment" title="Parental investment">Parental investment</a></li>

<li><a href="Parent%E2%80%93offspring_conflict" title="Parent–offspring conflict">Parent–offspring conflict</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Mutation" title="Mutation">Mutation</a></li>

<li><a href="Population" title="Population">Population</a></li>

<li><a href="Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">Natural selection</a></li>

<li><a href="Sexual_dimorphism" title="Sexual dimorphism">Sexual dimorphism</a></li>

<li><a href="Sexual_selection" title="Sexual selection">Sexual selection</a>

<ul><li><a href="Sexual_selection_in_flowering_plants" title="Sexual selection in flowering plants">Flowering plants</a></li>

<li><a href="Sexual_selection_in_fungi" title="Sexual selection in fungi">Fungi</a></li>

<li><a href="Mate_choice" title="Mate choice">Mate choice</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Social_selection" title="Social selection">Social selection</a></li>

<li><a href="Trivers%E2%80%93Willard_hypothesis" title="Trivers–Willard hypothesis">Trivers–Willard hypothesis</a></li>

<li><a href="Genetic_variation" title="Genetic variation">Variation</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Development</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Canalisation_(genetics)" title="Canalisation (genetics)">Canalisation</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Evolutionary developmental biology">Evolutionary developmental biology</a></li>

<li><a href="Genetic_assimilation" title="Genetic assimilation">Genetic assimilation</a></li>

<li><a href="Inversion_(evolutionary_biology)" title="Inversion (evolutionary biology)">Inversion</a></li>

<li><a href="Modularity_(biology)" title="Modularity (biology)">Modularity</a></li>

<li><a href="Phenotypic_plasticity" title="Phenotypic plasticity">Phenotypic plasticity</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Of <a href="Taxon" title="Taxon">taxa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Evolution_of_bacteria" title="Evolution of bacteria">Bacteria</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolution_of_birds" title="Evolution of birds">Birds</a>

<ul><li><a href="Origin_of_birds" title="Origin of birds">origin</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Evolution_of_brachiopods" title="Evolution of brachiopods">Brachiopods</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolution_of_molluscs" title="Evolution of molluscs">Molluscs</a>

<ul><li><a href="Evolution_of_cephalopods" title="Evolution of cephalopods">Cephalopods</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Dinosaur#Evolutionary_history" title="Dinosaur">Dinosaurs</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolution_of_fungi" title="Evolution of fungi">Fungi</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolution_of_insects" title="Evolution of insects">Insects</a>

<ul><li><a href="Evolution_of_butterflies" title="Evolution of butterflies">butterflies</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Evolution_of_mammals" title="Evolution of mammals">Mammals</a>

<li><a href="Canidae#Evolution" title="Canidae">canids</a>

<ul><li><a href="Evolution_of_the_wolf" title="Evolution of the wolf">wolves</a></li>

<li><a href="Hyena#Evolution" title="Hyena">hyenas</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolution_of_cetaceans" title="Evolution of cetaceans">dolphins and whales</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolution_of_the_horse" title="Evolution of the horse">horses</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolution_of_Macropodidae" title="Evolution of Macropodidae">Kangaroos</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolution_of_primates" title="Evolution of primates">primates</a>

<ul><li><a href="Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">humans</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolution_of_lemurs" title="Evolution of lemurs">lemurs</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_history_of_plants" title="Evolutionary history of plants">Plants</a>

<ul><li><a href="Pollinator-mediated_selection" title="Pollinator-mediated selection">pollinator-mediated</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Evolution_of_reptiles" title="Evolution of reptiles">Reptiles</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolution_of_spiders" title="Evolution of spiders">Spiders</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolution_of_tetrapods" title="Evolution of tetrapods">Tetrapods</a></li>

<li><a href="Viral_evolution" title="Viral evolution">Viruses</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Of <a href="Organ_(biology)" title="Organ (biology)">organs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Evolution_of_flagella" title="Evolution of flagella">Flagella</a></li>

<li><a href="Eukaryote#Origin_of_eukaryotes" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryotes</a>

<ul><li><a href="Symbiogenesis" title="Symbiogenesis">symbiogenesis</a></li>

<li><a href="Chromosome#Eukaryotes" title="Chromosome">chromosome</a></li>

<li><a href="Endomembrane_system#Evolution" title="Endomembrane system">endomembrane system</a></li>

<li><a href="Mitochondrion#Origin_and_evolution" title="Mitochondrion">mitochondria</a></li>

<li><a href="Cell_nucleus#Evolution" title="Cell nucleus">nucleus</a></li>

<li><a href="Plastid#Origin" title="Plastid">plastids</a></li></ul></li>

<li>In animals

<li><a href="Evolution_of_mammalian_auditory_ossicles" title="Evolution of mammalian auditory ossicles">auditory ossicle</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolution_of_nervous_systems" title="Evolution of nervous systems">nervous system</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolution_of_the_brain" title="Evolution of the brain">brain</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Of <a href="Biological_process" title="Biological process">processes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Evolution_of_ageing" title="Evolution of ageing">Aging</a>

<ul><li><a href="Death#Evolution_of_aging_and_mortality" title="Death">Death</a></li>

<li><a href="Programmed_cell_death#Evolutionary_origin_of_mitochondrial_apoptosis" title="Programmed cell death">Programmed cell death</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Origin_of_avian_flight" title="Origin of avian flight">Avian flight</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolution_of_biological_complexity" title="Evolution of biological complexity">Biological complexity</a></li>

<li><a href="Cooperation_(evolution)" title="Cooperation (evolution)">Cooperation</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolution_of_color_vision" title="Evolution of color vision">Color vision</a>

<ul><li><a href="Evolution_of_color_vision_in_primates" title="Evolution of color vision in primates">in primates</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Evolution_of_emotion" title="Evolution of emotion">Emotion</a></li>

<li><a href="Empathy#Evolution_across_species" title="Empathy">Empathy</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_ethics" title="Evolutionary ethics">Ethics</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolution_of_eusociality" title="Evolution of eusociality">Eusociality</a></li>

<li><a href="Immune_system#Evolution_and_other_mechanisms" title="Immune system">Immune system</a></li>

<li><a href="Metabolism#Evolution" title="Metabolism">Metabolism</a></li>

<li><a href="Monogamy_in_animals" title="Monogamy in animals">Monogamy</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolution_of_morality" title="Evolution of morality">Morality</a></li>

<li><a href="Mosaic_evolution" title="Mosaic evolution">Mosaic evolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Multicellular_organism#Evolutionary_history" title="Multicellular organism">Multicellularity</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolution_of_sexual_reproduction" title="Evolution of sexual reproduction">Sexual reproduction</a>

<ul><li><a href="Anisogamy#Evolution" title="Anisogamy">Gamete differentiation/sexes</a></li>

<li><a href="Biological_life_cycle" title="Biological life cycle">Life cycles/nuclear phases</a></li>

<li><a href="Mating_type" title="Mating type">Mating types</a></li>

<li><a href="Origin_and_function_of_meiosis" title="Origin and function of meiosis">Meiosis</a></li>

<li><a href="Sex-determination_system#Evolution" title="Sex-determination system">Sex-determination</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Evolution_of_snake_venom" title="Evolution of snake venom">Snake venom</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Tempo_and_Mode_in_Evolution" title="Tempo and Mode in Evolution">Tempo and modes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Phyletic_gradualism" title="Phyletic gradualism">Gradualism</a>/<a href="Punctuated_equilibrium" title="Punctuated equilibrium">Punctuated equilibrium</a>/<a href="Saltation_(biology)" title="Saltation (biology)">Saltationism</a></li>

<li><a href="Point_mutation" title="Point mutation">Micromutation</a>/<a href="Mutationism#Later_mutationist_theories" title="Mutationism">Macromutation</a></li>

<li><a href="Uniformitarianism" title="Uniformitarianism">Uniformitarianism</a>/<a href="Catastrophism" title="Catastrophism">Catastrophism</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Speciation" title="Speciation">Speciation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Allopatric_speciation" title="Allopatric speciation">Allopatric</a></li>

<li><a href="Anagenesis" title="Anagenesis">Anagenesis</a></li>

<li><a href="Catagenesis_(biology)" title="Catagenesis (biology)">Catagenesis</a></li>

<li><a href="Cladogenesis" title="Cladogenesis">Cladogenesis</a></li>

<li><a href="Cospeciation" title="Cospeciation">Cospeciation</a></li>

<li><a href="Ecological_speciation" title="Ecological speciation">Ecological</a></li>

<li><a href="Hybrid_speciation" title="Hybrid speciation">Hybrid</a></li>

<li><a href="Nonecological_speciation" title="Nonecological speciation">Non-ecological</a></li>

<li><a href="Parapatric_speciation" title="Parapatric speciation">Parapatric</a></li>

<li><a href="Peripatric_speciation" title="Peripatric speciation">Peripatric</a></li>

<li><a href="Reinforcement_(speciation)" title="Reinforcement (speciation)">Reinforcement</a></li>

<li><a href="Sympatric_speciation" title="Sympatric speciation">Sympatric</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="History_of_evolutionary_thought" title="History of evolutionary thought">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Evolutionary_ideas_of_the_Renaissance_and_Enlightenment" title="Evolutionary ideas of the Renaissance and Enlightenment">Renaissance and Enlightenment</a></li>

<li><a href="Transmutation_of_species" title="Transmutation of species">Transmutation of species</a></li>

<li><a href="David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a>

<ul><li><i><a href="Dialogues_Concerning_Natural_Religion" title="Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion">Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion</a></i></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a>

<ul><li><i><a href="On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">On the Origin of Species</a></i></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="History_of_paleontology" title="History of paleontology">History of paleontology</a></li>

<li><a href="Transitional_fossil" title="Transitional fossil">Transitional fossil</a></li>

<li><a href="Blending_inheritance" title="Blending inheritance">Blending inheritance</a></li>

<li><a href="Mendelian_inheritance" title="Mendelian inheritance">Mendelian inheritance</a></li>

<li><a href="The_eclipse_of_Darwinism" title="The eclipse of Darwinism">The eclipse of Darwinism</a></li>

<li><a href="Neo-Darwinism" title="Neo-Darwinism">Neo-Darwinism</a></li>

<li><a href="Modern_synthesis_(20th_century)" title="Modern synthesis (20th century)">Modern synthesis</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_molecular_evolution" title="History of molecular evolution">History of molecular evolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Extended_evolutionary_synthesis" title="Extended evolutionary synthesis">Extended evolutionary synthesis</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Darwinism" title="Darwinism">Darwinism</a></li>

<li><a href="Alternatives_to_Darwinian_evolution" title="Alternatives to Darwinian evolution">Alternatives</a>

<ul><li><a href="Catastrophism" title="Catastrophism">Catastrophism</a></li>

<li><a href="Lamarckism" title="Lamarckism">Lamarckism</a></li>

<li><a href="Orthogenesis" title="Orthogenesis">Orthogenesis</a></li>

<li><a href="Mutationism" title="Mutationism">Mutationism</a></li>

<li><a href="Saltation_(biology)" title="Saltation (biology)">Saltationism</a></li>

<li><a href="Structuralism_(biology)" title="Structuralism (biology)">Structuralism</a>

<ul><li><a href="Spandrel_(biology)" title="Spandrel (biology)">Spandrel</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Theistic_evolution" title="Theistic evolution">Theistic</a></li>

<li><a href="Vitalism" title="Vitalism">Vitalism</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Teleology_in_biology" title="Teleology in biology">Teleology in biology</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li>

<li><a href="Ecological_genetics" title="Ecological genetics">Ecological genetics</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_medicine" title="Evolutionary medicine">Evolutionary medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Group_selection" title="Group selection">Group selection</a>

<ul><li><a href="Cultural_evolution" title="Cultural evolution">Cultural evolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Cultural_group_selection" title="Cultural group selection">Cultural group selection</a></li>

<li><a href="Dual_inheritance_theory" title="Dual inheritance theory">Dual inheritance theory</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Hologenome_theory_of_evolution" title="Hologenome theory of evolution">Hologenome theory of evolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Missing_heritability_problem" title="Missing heritability problem">Missing heritability problem</a></li>

<li><a href="Molecular_evolution" title="Molecular evolution">Molecular evolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">Astrobiology</a></li>

<li><a href="Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">Phylogenetics</a>

<li><a href="Polymorphism_(biology)" title="Polymorphism (biology)">Polymorphism</a></li>

<li><a href="Protocell" title="Protocell">Protocell</a></li>

<li><a href="Transgenerational_epigenetic_inheritance" title="Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance">Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"></span></span> Category</li>

<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"></span> <a href="Portal%3AEvolutionary_biology" title="Portal:Evolutionary biology">Portal</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Branches_of_biology59" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Branches_of_biology59" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Outline_of_biology#Branches" title="Outline of biology">Branches of biology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Abiogenesis</a></li>

<li><a href="Aerobiology" title="Aerobiology">Aerobiology</a></li>

<li><a href="Agronomy" title="Agronomy">Agronomy</a></li>

<li><a href="Agrostology" title="Agrostology">Agrostology</a></li>

<li><a href="Anatomy" title="Anatomy">Anatomy</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">Anthropogeny</a></li>

<li><a href="Anthropology" title="Anthropology">Anthropology</a></li>

<li><a href="Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">Astrobiology</a></li>

<li><a href="Bacteriology" title="Bacteriology">Bacteriology</a></li>

<li><a href="Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biochemistry</a></li>

<li><a href="Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li>

<li><a href="Biogeology" title="Biogeology">Biogeology</a></li>

<li><a href="Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">Bioinformatics</a></li>

<li><a href="Biological_engineering" title="Biological engineering">Biological engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Mathematical_and_theoretical_biology" title="Mathematical and theoretical biology">Biomathematics</a></li>

<li><a href="Biomechanics" title="Biomechanics">Biomechanics</a></li>

<li><a href="Biophysics" title="Biophysics">Biophysics</a></li>

<li><a href="Biosemiotics" title="Biosemiotics">Biosemiotics</a></li>

<li><a href="Biostatistics" title="Biostatistics">Biostatistics</a></li>

<li><a href="Biotechnology" title="Biotechnology">Biotechnology</a></li>

<li><a href="Botany" title="Botany">Botany</a></li>

<li><a href="Cell_biology" title="Cell biology">Cell biology</a></li>

<li><a href="Cellular_microbiology" title="Cellular microbiology">Cellular microbiology</a></li>

<li><a href="Chemical_biology" title="Chemical biology">Chemical biology</a></li>

<li><a href="Chronobiology" title="Chronobiology">Chronobiology</a></li>

<li><a href="Cognitive_biology" title="Cognitive biology">Cognitive biology</a></li>

<li><a href="Computational_biology" title="Computational biology">Computational biology</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">Conservation biology</a></li>

<li><a href="Cryobiology" title="Cryobiology">Cryobiology</a></li>

<li><a href="Cytogenetics" title="Cytogenetics">Cytogenetics</a></li>

<li><a href="Dendrology" title="Dendrology">Dendrology</a></li>

<li><a href="Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">Developmental biology</a></li>

<li><a href="Ecological_genetics" title="Ecological genetics">Ecological genetics</a></li>

<li><a href="Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a></li>

<li><a href="Embryology" title="Embryology">Embryology</a></li>

<li><a href="Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</a></li>

<li><a href="Epigenetics" title="Epigenetics">Epigenetics</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a></li>

<li><a href="Freshwater_biology" title="Freshwater biology">Freshwater biology</a></li>

<li><a href="Generative_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Generative biology">Generative biology</a></li>

<li><a href="Genetics" title="Genetics">Genetics</a></li>

<li><a href="Genomics" title="Genomics">Genomics</a></li>

<li><a href="Geobiology" title="Geobiology">Geobiology</a></li>

<li><a href="Gerontology" title="Gerontology">Gerontology</a></li>

<li><a href="Herpetology" title="Herpetology">Herpetology</a></li>

<li><a href="Histology" title="Histology">Histology</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_biology" title="Human biology">Human biology</a></li>

<li><a href="Ichthyology" title="Ichthyology">Ichthyology</a></li>

<li><a href="Immunology" title="Immunology">Immunology</a></li>

<li><a href="Lipidology" title="Lipidology">Lipidology</a></li>

<li><a href="Mammalogy" title="Mammalogy">Mammalogy</a></li>

<li><a href="Marine_biology" title="Marine biology">Marine biology</a></li>

<li><a href="Microbiology" title="Microbiology">Microbiology</a></li>

<li><a href="Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">Molecular biology</a></li>

<li><a href="Mycology" title="Mycology">Mycology</a></li>

<li><a href="Neontology" title="Neontology">Neontology</a></li>

<li><a href="Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">Neuroscience</a></li>

<li><a href="Nutritional_science" title="Nutritional science">Nutrition</a></li>

<li><a href="Ornithology" title="Ornithology">Ornithology</a></li>

<li><a href="Osteology" title="Osteology">Osteology</a></li>

<li><a href="Paleontology" title="Paleontology">Paleontology</a></li>

<li><a href="Parasitology" title="Parasitology">Parasitology</a></li>

<li><a href="Pathology" title="Pathology">Pathology</a></li>

<li><a href="Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">Pharmacology</a></li>

<li><a href="Photobiology" title="Photobiology">Photobiology</a></li>

<li><a href="Phycology" title="Phycology">Phycology</a></li>

<li><a href="Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">Phylogenetics</a></li>

<li><a href="Physiology" title="Physiology">Physiology</a></li>

<li><a href="Pomology" title="Pomology">Pomology</a></li>

<li><a href="Primatology" title="Primatology">Primatology</a></li>

<li><a href="Proteomics" title="Proteomics">Proteomics</a></li>

<li><a href="Protistology" title="Protistology">Protistology</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_biology" title="Quantum biology">Quantum biology</a></li>

<li><a href="Relational_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Relational biology">Relational biology</a></li>

<li><a href="Reproductive_biology" title="Reproductive biology">Reproductive biology</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociobiology" title="Sociobiology">Sociobiology</a></li>

<li><a href="Structural_biology" title="Structural biology">Structural biology</a></li>

<li><a href="Synthetic_biology" title="Synthetic biology">Synthetic biology</a></li>

<li><a href="Systems_biology" title="Systems biology">Systems biology</a></li>

<li><a href="Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Taxonomy</a></li>

<li><a href="Teratology" title="Teratology">Teratology</a></li>

<li><a href="Toxicology" title="Toxicology">Toxicology</a></li>

<li><a href="Virology" title="Virology">Virology</a></li>

<li><a href="Virophysics" title="Virophysics">Virophysics</a></li>

<li><a href="Welfare_biology" title="Welfare biology">Welfare biology</a></li>

<li><a href="Xenobiology" title="Xenobiology">Xenobiology</a></li>

<li><a href="Zoology" title="Zoology">Zoology</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="History_of_biology" title="History of biology">History of biology</a></li>

<li><a href="Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Timeline_of_biology_and_organic_chemistry" title="Timeline of biology and organic chemistry">Timeline of biology and organic chemistry</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

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</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Biology858" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><div id="Biology858" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Biology" title="Biology">Biology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div>

<ul><li>Introduction (<a href="Introduction_to_genetics" title="Introduction to genetics">Genetics</a>, <a href="Introduction_to_evolution" title="Introduction to evolution">Evolution</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Outline_of_biology" title="Outline of biology">Outline</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_biology" title="History of biology">History</a>

<ul><li><a href="Timeline_of_biology_and_organic_chemistry" title="Timeline of biology and organic chemistry">Timeline</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Index_of_biology_articles" title="Index of biology articles">Index</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Biology" title="Biology">Biology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overview</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Science" title="Science">Science</a></li>

<li>Properties (<a href="Adaptation" title="Adaptation">Adaptation</a>, <a href="Metabolism" title="Metabolism"> Energy processing</a>, <a href="Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">Growth</a>, <a href="Structure#Biological" title="Structure">Order</a>, <a href="Homeostasis" title="Homeostasis">Regulation</a>, <a href="Reproduction" title="Reproduction">Reproduction</a> (<a href="Self-replication" title="Self-replication">Self-replication</a>), <a href="Stimulus_(physiology)" title="Stimulus (physiology)">Response to environment</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Biological_organisation" title="Biological organisation">Hierarchy of life</a> (<a href="Atom" title="Atom">Atom</a> > <a href="Molecule" title="Molecule">Molecule</a> > <a href="Organelle" title="Organelle">Organelle</a> > <a href="Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">Cell</a> > <a href="Tissue_(biology)" title="Tissue (biology)">Tissue</a> > <a href="Organ_(biology)" title="Organ (biology)">Organ</a> > <a href="Biological_system" title="Biological system">Organ system</a> > <a href="Organism" title="Organism">Organism</a> > <a href="Population" title="Population">Population</a> > <a href="Biocoenosis" title="Biocoenosis">Community</a> > <a href="Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">Ecosystem</a> > <a href="Biosphere" title="Biosphere">Biosphere</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Reductionism#In_science" title="Reductionism">Reductionistic</a></li>

<li><a href="Emergence" title="Emergence"> Emergent property</a></li>

<li><a href="Mechanical_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Mechanical philosophy">Mechanistic</a></li>

<li><a href="Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li>

<li><a href="Taxonomic_rank" title="Taxonomic rank">Taxonomic rank</a></li>

<li><a href="Scientific_theory" title="Scientific theory"> Theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Peer_review" title="Peer review">Peer review</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_biology_journals" title="List of biology journals">Biology journals</a></li>

<li><a href="Common_name" title="Common name">Common name</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Chemical basis</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Atom" title="Atom">Atoms</a></li>

<li><a href="Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">Amino acids</a></li>

<li><a href="Carbohydrate" title="Carbohydrate">Carbohydrates</a></li>

<li><a href="Chemical_bond" title="Chemical bond">Chemical bond</a></li>

<li><a href="Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">Chemical element</a></li>

<li><a href="Lipid" title="Lipid">Lipids</a></li>

<li><a href="Matter" title="Matter">Matter</a>

<ul><li><a href="Quantum_biology" title="Quantum biology">Quantum</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Molecule" title="Molecule">Molecules</a></li>

<li><a href="Monomer" title="Monomer">Monomer</a></li>

<li><a href="Nucleic_acid" title="Nucleic acid">Nucleic acids</a></li>

<li><a href="Organic_compound" title="Organic compound">Organic compounds</a></li>

<li><a href="Polymer" title="Polymer">Polymer</a></li>

<li><a href="Protein" title="Protein">Proteins</a></li>

<li><a href="Water" title="Water">Water</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">Cells</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Cell_cycle" title="Cell cycle">Cell cycle</a></li>

<li><a href="Cell_theory" title="Cell theory">Cell theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Cell_signaling" title="Cell signaling">Cell signaling</a></li>

<li><a href="Cellular_respiration" title="Cellular respiration">Cellular respiration</a></li>

<li><a href="Energy" title="Energy">Energy transformation</a></li>

<li><a href="Enzyme" title="Enzyme">Enzyme</a></li>

<li><a href="Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryote</a></li>

<li><a href="Fermentation" title="Fermentation">Fermentation</a></li>

<li><a href="Metabolism" title="Metabolism">Metabolism</a></li>

<li><a href="Meiosis" title="Meiosis">Meiosis</a></li>

<li><a href="Mitosis" title="Mitosis">Mitosis</a></li>

<li><a href="Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</a></li>

<li><a href="Prokaryote" title="Prokaryote">Prokaryote</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Genetics" title="Genetics">Genetics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Epigenetics" title="Epigenetics">Epigenetics</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Evolutionary developmental biology">Evolutionary developmental biology</a></li>

<li><a href="Gene_expression" title="Gene expression">Gene expression</a></li>

<li><a href="Regulation_of_gene_expression" title="Regulation of gene expression">Gene regulation</a></li>

<li><a href="Genome" title="Genome">Genomes</a></li>

<li><a href="Mendelian_inheritance" title="Mendelian inheritance">Mendelian inheritance</a></li>

<li><a href="Post-transcriptional_modification" title="Post-transcriptional modification">Post-transcriptional modification</a></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="Adaptation" title="Adaptation">Adaptation</a></li>

<li><a href="Earliest_known_life_forms" title="Earliest known life forms">Earliest known life forms</a></li>

<li><a href="Function_(biology)" title="Function (biology)">Function</a></li>

<li><a href="Genetic_drift" title="Genetic drift">Genetic drift</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_life" title="History of life">History of life</a></li>

<li><a href="Macroevolution" title="Macroevolution">Macroevolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Microevolution" title="Microevolution">Microevolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Mutation" title="Mutation">Mutation</a></li>

<li><a href="Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">Natural selection</a></li>

<li><a href="Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">Phylogenetics</a></li>

<li><a href="Speciation" title="Speciation">Speciation</a></li>

<li><a href="Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Taxonomy</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Diversity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a></li>

<li><a href="Bacteria" title="Bacteria">Bacteria</a></li>

<li><a href="Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryote</a>

<li><a href="Animal" title="Animal">Animal</a></li>

<li><a href="Fungus" title="Fungus">Fungus</a></li>

<li><a href="Plant" title="Plant">Plant</a></li>

<li><a href="Protist" title="Protist">Protist</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Virus" title="Virus">Virus</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Plant form <br> and function</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Epidermis_(botany)" title="Epidermis (botany)">Epidermis (botany)</a></li>

<li><a href="Flower" title="Flower">Flower</a></li>

<li><a href="Ground_tissue" title="Ground tissue">Ground tissue</a></li>

<li><a href="Phloem" title="Phloem">Phloem</a></li>

<li><a href="Plant_stem" title="Plant stem">Plant stem</a></li>

<li><a href="Shoot_(botany)" title="Shoot (botany)">Shoot</a></li>

<li><a href="Vascular_plant" title="Vascular plant">Vascular plant</a></li>

<li><a href="Vascular_tissue" title="Vascular tissue">Vascular tissue</a></li>

<li><a href="Xylem" title="Xylem">Xylem</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Animal form <br>and function</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Breathing" title="Breathing">Breathing</a></li>

<li><a href="Circulatory_system" title="Circulatory system">Circulatory system</a></li>

<li><a href="Endocrine_system" title="Endocrine system">Endocrine system</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_digestive_system" title="Human digestive system">Digestive system</a></li>

<li><a href="Homeostasis" title="Homeostasis">Homeostasis</a></li>

<li><a href="Immune_system" title="Immune system">Immune system</a></li>

<li><a href="Internal_environment" title="Internal environment">Internal environment</a></li>

<li><a href="Muscular_system" title="Muscular system">Muscular system</a></li>

<li><a href="Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">Nervous system</a></li>

<li><a href="Reproductive_system" title="Reproductive system">Reproductive system</a></li>

<li><a href="Respiratory_system" title="Respiratory system">Respiratory system</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Biogeochemical_cycle" title="Biogeochemical cycle">Biogeochemical cycle</a></li>

<li><a href="Biological_interaction" title="Biological interaction">Biological interaction</a></li>

<li><a href="Biomass" title="Biomass">Biomass</a></li>

<li><a href="Biome" title="Biome">Biomes</a></li>

<li><a href="Biosphere" title="Biosphere">Biosphere</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate" title="Climate">Climate</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_change" title="Climate change">Climate change</a></li>

<li><a href="Community_(ecology)" title="Community (ecology)">Community</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">Conservation</a></li>

<li><a href="Ecosystem_ecology" title="Ecosystem ecology">Ecosystem</a></li>

<li><a href="Habitat" title="Habitat">Habitat</a>

<ul><li><a href="Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">niche</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Microbiome" title="Microbiome">Microbiome</a></li>

<li><a href="Population_ecology" title="Population ecology">Population dynamics</a></li>

<li><a href="Resource_(biology)" title="Resource (biology)">Resources</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="List_of_research_methods_in_biology" title="List of research methods in biology">Research <br> methods</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Laboratory <br> techniques</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Genetic_engineering" title="Genetic engineering">Genetic engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Transformation_(genetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transformation (genetics)">Transformation</a></li>

<li><a href="Gel_electrophoresis" title="Gel electrophoresis">Gel electrophoresis</a></li>

<li><a href="Chromatography" title="Chromatography">Chromatography</a></li>

<li><a href="Centrifugation" title="Centrifugation">Centrifugation</a></li>

<li><a href="Cell_culture" title="Cell culture">Cell culture</a></li>

<li><a href="DNA_sequencing" title="DNA sequencing">DNA sequencing</a></li>

<li><a href="DNA_microarray" title="DNA microarray">DNA microarray</a></li>

<li><a href="Green_fluorescent_protein" title="Green fluorescent protein">Green fluorescent protein</a></li>

<li><a href="Vector_(molecular_biology)" title="Vector (molecular biology)">vector</a></li>

<li><a href="Enzyme_assay" title="Enzyme assay">Enzyme assay</a></li>

<li><a href="Protein_purification" title="Protein purification">Protein purification</a></li>

<li><a href="Western_blot" title="Western blot">Western blot</a></li>

<li><a href="Northern_blot" title="Northern blot">Northern blot</a></li>

<li><a href="Southern_blot" title="Southern blot">Southern blot</a></li>

<li><a href="Restriction_enzyme" title="Restriction enzyme">Restriction enzyme</a></li>

<li><a href="Polymerase_chain_reaction" title="Polymerase chain reaction">Polymerase chain reaction</a></li>

<li><a href="Two-hybrid_screening" title="Two-hybrid screening">Two-hybrid screening</a></li>

<li><i><a href="In_vitro" title="In vitro">in vitro</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="In_silico" title="In silico">in silico</a></i></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Field techniques</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Belt_transect" title="Belt transect">Belt transect</a></li>

<li><a href="Mark_and_recapture" title="Mark and recapture">mark and recapture</a></li>

<li><a href="Species_discovery_curve" title="Species discovery curve">species discovery curve</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Branches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt">